The Rise and Fall of the Borgia Family

The Borgias are the most infamous family of Renaissance Italy, and their history normally hinges around four key individuals: Pope Calixtus III, his nephew Pope Alexander IV, his son Cesare, and his daughter Lucrezia. Thanks to the actions of the middle pair, the family name is associated with greed, power, lust, and murder. The Rise of the Borgias The most famous branch of the Borgia family originated with Alfonso de Borgia (1378–1458, and or Alfons de Borja in Spanish), the son of a middling status family, in Valencia, Spain. Alfons went to university and studied canon and civil law, where he demonstrated talent and after graduation began to rise through the local church. After representing his diocese in national matters, Alfons was appointed secretary to King Alfonso V of Aragon (1396–1458) and became deeply involved in politics, sometimes acting as envoy for the monarch. Soon Alfons became Vice-Chancellor, a trusted and relied upon aide, and then regent when the king went to conquer Naples. While demonstrating skills as an administrator, he also promoted his family, even interfering with a murder trial to secure his kin’s safety. When the king returned, Alfons led negotiations over a rival pope who was living in Aragon. He secured a delicate success which impressed Rome and became both a priest and a bishop. A few years later Alfons went to Naples—now ruled by Alfonso V of Aragon—and reorganized the government. In 1439 Alfons represented Aragon at a council to try and unite the eastern and western churches. It failed, but he impressed. When the king finally negotiated papal approval for his hold of Naples (in return for defending Rome against central Italian rivals), Alfons did the work  and was appointed a cardinal in 1444 as a reward. He thus moved to Rome in 1445, aged 67, and changed the spelling of his name to Borgia. Oddly for the age, Alfons was not a pluralist, keeping only one church appointment, and was also honest and sober. The next generation of Borgia would be very different, and Alfons’s nephews now arrived in Rome. The youngest, Rodrigo, was destined for the church and studied canon law in Italy, where he established a reputation as a ladies man. An elder nephew, Pedro Luis, was destined for military command. Calixtus III: The First Borgia Pope Hulton Archive / Getty Images On April 8th, 1455, shortly after being made a cardinal, Alfons was elected Pope, largely because he belonged to no major factions and seemed destined for a short reign due to age. He took the name Calixtus III. As a Spaniard, Calixtus had many ready-made enemies in Rome, and he began his rule carefully, keen to avoid Rome’s factions, even though his first ceremony was interrupted by a riot. However, Calixtus also broke with his former king, Alfonso V, after Calixtus ignored Alfonsos request for a crusade. While Calixtus punished Alonso by refusing to promote his sons, he was busy promoting his own family. Nepotism was not unusual in the papacy, indeed, it allowed the Popes to create a base of supporters. Calixtus made his nephew Rodrigo (1431–1503) and his slightly older brother Pedro (1432–1458) cardinals in their mid-20s, acts which scandalized Rome because of their youth and ensuing debauchery. Rodrigo, sent to a difficult region as a papal legate, was skilled and successful. Pedro was given an army command, and the promotions and wealth flowed in: Rodrigo became second in command of the church, and Pedro a Duke and Prefect, while other family members were given a range of positions. When King Alfonso died, Pedro was sent to seize Naples which had defaulted back to Rome. Critics believed Calixtus intended to give Naples to Pedro. However, matters came to a head between Pedro and his rivals over this, and he had to flee enemies, although he died shortly after of malari a. In aiding him, Rodrigo demonstrated a physical bravery  and was with Calixtus when he too died in 1458. Rodrigo: Journey to the Papacy Painting of Portrait of Rodrigo Borgia (1431-1503) Pope Alexander VI. German School / Getty Images In the conclave following Calixtus’s death, Rodrigo was the most junior cardinal, but he played a key role in electing the new Pope—Pius II—a role that required courage and gambling his career. The move worked, and for a young foreign outsider who had lost his patron, Rodrigo found himself a key ally of the new pope and confirmed Vice-Chancellor. To be fair, Rodrigo was a man of great ability and was perfectly capable in this role, but he also loved women, wealth, and glory. He thus abandoned the example of his uncle Calixtus and set about acquiring benefices and land to secure his position: castles, bishoprics, and money. Rodrigo also earned official reprimands from the Pope for his licentiousness. Rodrigo’s response was to cover his tracks more. However, he had many children, including a son called Cesare in 1475 and a daughter called Lucrezia in 1480. In 1464, Pope Pius II died, and when the conclave to select the next pope began Rodrigo was powerful enough to influence the election of Pope Paul I (served 1464–1471). In 1469, Rodrigo was sent as a papal legate to Spain with permission to approve or deny the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and thus the union of the Spanish regions of Aragon and Castile. In approving the match, and working to get Spain to accept them, Rodrigo earned the support of King Ferdinand. On returning to Rome, Rodrigo kept his head down as the new pope Sixtus IV (served 1471–1484) became the center of plotting and intrigue in Italy. Rodrigos children were given routes to success: his eldest son became a Duke, while daughters were married to secure alliances. A papal conclave in 1484 installed Innocent VIII rather than making Rodrigo pope, but the Borgia leader had his eye on the throne, and worked hard to secure allies for what he considered his last chance, and was aided by the current pope causing violence and chaos. In 1492, with the death of Innocent VIII, Rodrigo put all his work together with a huge amount of bribes and was finally elected Pope Alexander VI. It has been said, not without validity, that he bought the papacy. Alexander VI: The Second Borgia Pope Hulton Archive / Getty Images Alexander had widespread public support  and was capable, diplomatic, and skilled, as well as rich, hedonistic, and concerned with ostentatious displays. While Alexander at first tried to keep his role separate from family, his children soon benefited from his election, and received huge wealth; Cesare became a cardinal in 1493.  Relatives arrived in Rome and were rewarded, and the Borgias were soon endemic in Italy. While many other Popes had been nepotists, Alexander went farther, promoting his own children and had a range of mistresses, something that further fueled a growing and negative reputation. At this point, some of the Borgia children also began to cause problems, as they annoyed their new families, and at one point Alexander appears to have threatened to excommunicate a mistress for returning to her husband. Alexander soon had to navigate a way through the warring states and families which surrounded him, and, at first, he tried negotiation, including the marriage of a twelve-year-old Lucrezia to Giovanni Sforza. He had some success with diplomacy, but it was short-lived. Meanwhile, Lucrezia’s husband proved a poor soldier, and he fled in opposition to the pope, who then had him divorced. Accounts claim Lucrezias husband believed rumors of incest between Alexander and Lucrezia that persist to this day. France then entered the arena, competing for Italian land, and in 1494 King Charles VIII invaded Italy. His advance was barely stopped, and as Charles entered Rome, Alexander retired to a palace. He could have  fled  but stayed to use his ability against the neurotic Charles. He negotiated both his own survival and a compromise which ensured an independent papacy, but which left Cesare as both a papal legate and a hostage†¦ until he escaped. France took Naples, but the rest of Italy came together in a Holy League in which Alexander played a key role. However, when Charles retreated back through Rome, Alexander thought it best to leave this second time. Juan Borgia Alexander now turned on a  Roman family  who stayed loyal to France: the Orsini. The command was given to Alexander’s son Duke Juan, who was recalled from Spain, where he had earned a reputation for womanizing. Meanwhile, Rome echoed to the rumors of the excesses of the Borgia children. Alexander meant to give Juan first the vital Orsini land, and then strategic papal lands, but Juan was assassinated and his corpse thrown into the Tiber. He was 20. No one knows who did it. The Rise of Cesare Borgia Mondadori / Getty Images Juan had been Alexander’s  favorite  and his commander: that  honor  (and the rewards) were now diverted to Cesare, who wished to resign his cardinal’s hat and marry. Cesare represented the future to Alexander, partly because the other male  Borgia  children were dying or weak. Cesare secularized himself fully in 1498. He was immediately given replacement wealth as the Duke of Valence through an alliance Alexander brokered with the new French King Louis XIII, in return for papal acts and aiding him in gaining Milan. Cesare also married into Louis’ family and was given an army. His wife became pregnant before he left for Italy, but neither she nor the child ever saw Cesare again. Louis was successful and Cesare, who was only 23 but with an iron will and strong drive, began a remarkable military career. The Wars of Cesare Borgia Alexander looked at the condition of the Papal States, left in disarray after the first French invasion, and decided military action was needed. He thus ordered Cesare, who was in Milan with his army, to pacify large areas of central Italy for the Borgias. Cesare had early success, although when his large French contingent returned to France, he needed a new army and returned to Rome. Cesare seemed to have control over his father now, and people after papal appointments and acts found it more profitable to seek out the son instead of Alexander. Cesare also became Captain-General of the churches armies  and a dominant figure in central Italy. Lucrezia’s husband was also killed, possibly on the orders of an angry Cesare, who also was rumored to be acting against those who badmouthed him in Rome by assassinations. Murder was common in Rome, and many of the unsolved deaths were attributed to the Borgias, and usually Cesare. With a substantial war chest from Alexander, Cesare conquered., and at one point marched to remove Naples from the control of the dynasty who had given the Borgias their start. When Alexander went south to oversee the division of land, Lucrezia was left behind in Rome as regent. The Borgia family gained great amounts of land in the  Papal States, which were now concentrated in the hands of one family more than ever before, and Lucrezia was packed off to marry Alfonso d’Este to secure a flank of Cesare’s conquests. The Fall of the Borgias As the alliance with France now seemed to be holding Cesare back, plans were made, deals struck, wealth acquired and enemies murdered to take a change of direction, but in mid-1503 Alexander died of malaria. Cesare found his benefactor gone, his realm not yet consolidated, large foreign armies in the north and south, and himself also deeply ill. Furthermore, with Cesare weak, his enemies rushed back from exile to threaten his lands, and when Cesare failed to coerce the papal conclave, he retreated from Rome. He persuaded the new pope Pius III (served September-October 1503) to re-admit him safely, but that pontiff died after  twenty-six  days and Cesare had to flee. He next supported a great Borgia rival, Cardinal  della  Rovere, as Pope Julius III, but with his lands conquered and his diplomacy rebuffed an annoyed Julius arrested Cesare. Borgias were now thrown out of their positions, or forced into keeping quiet. Developments allowed Cesare to be released, and he went to Naples, but he was arrested by Ferdinand of Aragon and locked up again. Cesare did escape after two years  but was killed in a skirmish in 1507. He was just 31. Lucrezia the Patron and the End of the Borgias Print Collector / Getty Images Lucrezia also survived  malaria and the loss of her father and brother. Her personality reconciled her to her husband, his  family, and her state, and she took up court positions, acting as regent. She  organized  the state, saw it through war, and created a court of great culture through her patronage. She was popular with her  subjects  and died in 1519. No Borgias ever rose to become as powerful as Alexander, but there were plenty of minor figures who held religious and political positions, and Francis Borgia (d. 1572) was made a saint. By Francis’ time the family was declining in importance, and by the end of the eighteenth century it had died out. The Borgia Legend Alexander and the Borgias have become infamous for corruption,  cruelty,  and murder. Yet what Alexander did as pope was rarely original, he just took things to a new extreme. Cesare was perhaps the supreme intersection of secular power wielded to spiritual power in Europe’s history, and the Borgias were renaissance  princes  no worse than many of their contemporaries. Indeed, Cesare was given the dubious distinction of Machiavelli, who knew Cesare, saying the Borgia general was a grand example of how to tackle power. Sources and Further Reading Fusero, Clemente. The Borgias. Trans. Green, Peter. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972.  Mallett, Michael. The Borgias: The Rise and Fall of a Renaissance Family. New York: Barnes Noble, 1969.  Meyer, G. J. The Borgias: The Hidden History. New York: Random House, 2013.

Ethical Issue - 1171 Words

Introduction Today’s world computer crimes are internet related, and in this area carrying out law barriers are either not well defined or most of the countries they don’t have arraign cyber crime laws. Those laws deliver the absence of the safe, the only substitute is protection against apparent warning exists is to develop ones own, depend on constitutional protection, a big range, and ethics to reduce constitutional entrance. Establishing information systems are grater speed than process of making legal and law, sometimes don’t have accorded legal safe opposite to the abuse of new technology. In some situations, what possible and what impossible is not clear, and so do not endure plenty of laws, or in most situations fair inadequate†¦show more content†¦When new problems as they appear sequentially in any avocation then ethics convention approach by aptitude for accomplish induction done. 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Economics, Business, Finance and Banking MBA Colle Essay Example For Students

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Saving the dollar the war Review Essay Example

Saving the dollar the war Review Paper Essay on Saving the dollar the war There are books on which to think. Horoshenechko brains. With these books do not lie on the beach, it is easy for a couple of hours, it does not overpower. This book should be taken as a textbook, manual and with a pencil in his hand thoughtfully read, observe, verify and interpret. Of course, no one says that everything contained in the book the truth in the High Court. And it is not necessary. The main effect to stir the brains and open your eyes Author It is enough known St. Petersburg writer.. Speaking on radio, printed in newspapers, constantly travels around the country and meet with readers. He has a pretty popular blog, which regularly publish articles something on the history of something comments on news of politics, and sometimes even a justification of the authorities of our and other countries. A common thread throughout this passes the main idea in many (all) the troubles to blame the Anglo-Saxons it is they sponsored the 1917 revolution, is it served Khrushchev is they helped destroy the Soviet Union and they also intrigues us now, constantly provoking in the world. Honestly, this specialization of the author somewhat annoying if you want to see the connection with the Anglo-Saxons you will find it everywhere, and justification of the author, he writes only about what is parsed (and that means a word about the internal politics) is not really even believe. The book The dollar Salvation War is, in fact, extract s of the best, quality and controversial articles of his blog, as well as several interviews of the author (probably added to the volume, or fans of the author bonus) We will write a custom essay sample on Saving the dollar the war Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Saving the dollar the war Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Saving the dollar the war Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Language the author obviously has some kind of hypnotic effect. I do not know much or anything NLP is even more abruptly, but if someone has ever seen his statement, I understand. Quiet, I would say it soothing, monochromatic, gradual, and filled in the head. Standing, listen, you can not tear myself away. And like all true author says, all very logical and consistent, but rrraz and you wake up and you realize that all too easily taken for granted. language books exactly the same. Clear honed short phrases. Imperative verbs. No but. Believe everything. All very seriously The structure of the book Its not as usual -. In the book there is a clear structure introduction, argument and proof of the idea, summary and conclusions. In fact the book a collection of several huge colorful beads that are strung again the red thread of an external enemy. The book can be read in any order, from any location. Each bead an interesting fact for an interesting argument: -) The book itself is conventionally divided into 4 parts the first part commentary on contemporary political kitchen; The second part the proof of the constant provocations of Russia by Anglo-Saxons; the third part some interesting stories; fourth -. the most hot (that is controversial) author of the article The whole structure of the book summarize in a few words is impossible too many ideas, attitudes, parties with which various events. To cite just a few, are the most me hooked »: Habitual us dollar it is in fact the Feds action, and the Federal Reserve a private organization not under control the US government. Specific people with specific goals selfish world (yes, about the teeth on edge in the book of the crisis too, but just a little) The head of Canada -. Queen of Great Britain. And not only formally (eg, Queen of Great Britain is to declare war on behalf of Canada alone) Our glorious Decembrists -. Proplachennye traitors Provocation Arctic Sea has successfully razrulit our management and exchange. on the part of US concessions. at the time of the demonstrations in the past year after the murder of an innocent girl, the protesters in Iran carried their posters in English (is this necessary when referring to their president? No, it is necessary for the pressure Irans government by the Western media). In my opinion already hwa Tit for heavy discussion: -) What is useful  «Money plus information this is the ultimate weapon of modern times. For what is a big plus to the author teaches us to think, to look with my own eyes. The first stage completely lost trust in the media, the second already learn to see between the lines of the international news and to predict future actions of world powers (!). To me, this is the main advantage of the book The rest -. Interesting, little-known facts about the history and the present, almost every one of them can leave with his head and begin the study of the history and relationships in the world . to First of all, I would recommend this book young. Because thats what they are targeting the media they most painfully react to all events in the world. Let the same be at least some version of the understanding of the geopolitics before, the finalization and its: -) Also, to everyone who is interested in politics, history of Russia since the beginning of the 20th century will be interesting with the author to find the analogy of past years in the present events.

The Internet Has Been Overly Commercialized

The Internet Has Been Overly Commercialized The Internet has become like a huge billboard for various industries. And the fact of the matter is that we use the Internet every day. Why Is the Internet so Popular? The year was 1990; this was the year when the Internet was very recognizable†¦ why? The World Wide Web was invented by Tim Berners-Lee. Public networking then became liberally available in the year of 1993, and since then the number of users that are on the Internet has grown to exponential numbers and continues to grow each year. With how technology is growing and the availability of when, where and how you can access the Internet, its no wonder that more people are utilizing the Internet for just about everything that is done. For that point alone, it brings forth a great debatable question: has the Internet become overly commercialized? THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN OUR EVERYDAY LIFE Some would argue that the Internet has not become overly commercialized†¦ but in all reality of the matter, the truth is yes†¦ the Internet has become overly commercialized since the date of its conception. At the moment from when the Internet was born, the Internet was mainly used by scientist and military officers. The main goal of scientist and military officers being able to use the Internet was to share information that was deemed viable. The purpose of the Internet and them being able to share the information via the Internet was to keep that information safe in case of a nuclear war breaking†¦ they wanted to be able to get that information back. But the Internet became commercialized around 1995†¦ it was something that everyone was using, and with the use of so many people, explosive growth is what the Internet received. People Are Looking for ADS Since the Internet had become so popular and growth was a continued trend from it, people knew it was only a matter of time before companies and advertiser began to use the Internet for their own commercial interests. Since there has been so much commercialized content on the Internet, it seems that more and more that is all that a lot of people that use the Internet come for. They arent getting online to get or read content†¦ the majority of people that are using the Internet now are getting on to see the advertisements that are being displayed. Most users of the Internet are looking for ads that have something to offer rather than the content that can be found on the Internet. With all of the content that is readily available on the Internet, it is very easy to get lost in it. Even if your initial goal in getting on the Internet was to look at good content, or to find out some information that you were in search of, with all of the commercialized content that is on the Internet it is easy to get distracted from your initial reason for getting online. But how, you may be asking, has it become so commercialized? Its not just because of the ads; think about all of the websites that you can visit that promotes movies†¦ or sites that promote televisions shows. You have the sites that are dedicated only to television shows, or the characters that are within these shows. Youre able to see clips of movies before they have come out. You can easily get online and see video games and things that are to come†¦ but what drives this commercialization? Easily put in one word†¦ money. Commercialization Is Increasing Every Single Day All things are about money these days. With the majority of these sites, you will find that the more viewers they have to the site, the more money they make. And even if they do not make money from people viewing the sites, the more people that are able to see the site, the more likely they will go out to see the movie when it comes out; the more likely they are to go out and buy the video game once it is released. People are more eager and persuaded to go out and get something they have seen, especially if they have seen it more than once. And with the way the Internet works today†¦ ads are everywhere. The more ad space that is purchased on the Internet, especially if it is brought on several different sites, the more often the ad is seen. DOES VIOLENCE IN THE MEDIA CAUSE VIOLENCE IN CHILDREN? The Internet has become like a huge billboard for various industries. And the fact of the matter is that we use the Internet every day. Whether we are using it for work, or if were using it for school†¦ its being used, constantly. A lot of our televisions integrate the Internet into what we are viewing†¦ phones use the Internet, and we can easily access the Internet through our phones. The Internet is everywhere we look and is utilized with just about everything we do. Commercialization is here and it is increasing every single day. Yes, the Internet has been commercialized and it grows with each passing second of every day.

Breaking Muphrys Law

Breaking Muphrys Law Breaking Muphry’s Law Breaking Muphry’s Law By Mark Nichol A recent newspaper blog post about a typographical error on Mitt Romney’s iPhone â€Å"With Mitt† app it refers to â€Å"A Better Amercia† inevitably succumbed to Muphry’s law, which states that any criticism of a writing or editing error will itself contain such an error. After commenting on the mistake, the blogger referred to the microblogging site Tumblr, writing, â€Å"And there’s already a Tumblr [page] for this with people goofing on the slip-up†¦.or what that be a Tumbeler?† That final phrase (which also reveals that the blogger obviously didn’t read my post about ellipses), should read, â€Å"or would that be a Tumbeler?† (If you want to ruin a joke that features a deliberate typographical error, there’s nothing better than immediately preceding it with an accidental typo.) The adage the blogger’s boo-boo upholds is also known, with variations, as McKean’s law, after lexicographer Erin McKean; Skitt’s law, named for an alt.usage.english contributor; and Hartman’s Law of Prescriptivist Retaliation, the grandiloquent nomenclature of technical writer and fiction writer and editor Jed Hartman. A blogger with the handle Zeno called it the Iron Law of Nitpicking, a better label, perhaps, as it does not credit a particular person, but Muphry’s law (which only indirectly refers to a specific source) is of course the most appropriate moniker. An Australian editor named John Bangsund explicated the law as follows in 1992: (a) If you write anything criticizing editing or proofreading, there will be a fault of some kind in what you have written; (b) If an author thanks you in a book for your editing or proofreading, there will be mistakes in the book; (c) The stronger the sentiment expressed in (a) and (b), the greater the fault; (d) Any book devoted to editing or style will be internally inconsistent. The oldest known statement along these lines, however, is one from early twentieth-century writer Ambrose Bierce (best known for his caustically misanthropic Devil’s Dictionary), who in 1909 wrote in a writing handbook, â€Å"Writers all, both great and small, are habitual sinners against the light; and their accuser is cheerfully aware that his own work will supply (as in making this book it has supplied) many ‘awful examples.’† The moral of the story one I disregard by writing this post, which according to Muphry’s law should be rewarded by divine retribution in the form of commenters pointing out some error I’ve introduced is, â€Å"Writers in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Redundant Phrases to Avoid11 Writing Exercises to Inspire You and Strengthen Your WritingHow to Style Titles of Print and Online Publications

Respiratory, Endocrine, Urinary Systems Coursework

Respiratory, Endocrine, Urinary Systems - Coursework Example As a result, the tissue plays many functions in the body. Some of the functions include support and protection (Human Biology, n.d.). Some of the connective tissues include fat tissue, dense fibrous tissue, bone, blood, and lymph. There are different types of muscle tissue in the body. They include skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. The skeletal tissue helps contraction of skeletal parts of the body (Human Biology, n.d.). The movement of the muscle is voluntary. On the other hand, smooth muscles are found prominently in the internal organ and blood vessels, and it is involuntary (Human Biology, n.d.). Additionally, the cardiac muscle is only located in the walls of the heart (Human Biology, n.d.). The muscle is also involuntary. Nerve tissue also plays a vital role in the body. The nerve tissue comprises of specialized cells (Human Biology, n.d.). The tissue receives stimuli and conduct impulse to and from different parts of the body (Human Biology, n.d.). The microscope helps in clear observation of components of the cutaneous membrane. The outer layer of the membrane appears covered with a tough fibrous structure. Moreover, there are some small pores on the surface of the membrane. Moreover, the cells appear to be organized in layers. On the other hand, the mucous membrane appears covered by the fluid on the surface. Moreover, the surface appears covered by tiny protruding structures. Moreover, the cells appear longitudinal in shape. The synovial membrane is found in various joints in the body(Buzzle, 2014). The membrane comprises soft tissue that lines non-cartilaginous surfaces with joints that have opening (Buzzle, 2014). The membrane usually is bi-layered. The outer layer is known as subintima while the inner layer is known as intima (Buzzle, 2014). The outer layer of the membrane is loose, and the inner layer is located above the pliable membrane (Buzzle, 2014). In conclusion, the microscopy helps in identifying some of the majo r components of the membranes. Moreover, the structures organization appears linked to the adaptation of the membranes.

Theoretical perspective Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Theoretical perspective - Assignment Example haustive assessment, a nurse will understand the unique features and requirement of every family thereby developing an equally unique care plan, one that suits the family. Furthermore, the assessment criteria as propagated by the theory investigates and assesses every possible feature of a family thereby enhancing the process of obtaining holistic information that helps in diagnosing the psychological and physical wellbeing of every individual in a family. The above theory is the most effective in assessing families. It provides a simple assessment mechanism since it investigates basic demographic features. Additionally, the theoretical perspective is exhaustive since it strives to assess every possible feature that would help portray the uniqueness in both the physical and the psychological wellbeing of an individual. This way, a caregiver will understand the nature of the family unit and the factors affecting the health of every member of the family. Cultural care values rely on the uniqueness of the kinship, religious beliefs, language, worldview, politics, economy and technology among other basic factors (Leininger & National League for Nursing, 2001). The theoretical perspective investigates the effects of such factors thereby developing a holistic diagnosis to every individual in the family unit. Such is an exhaustive criteria often not achieved in other theoretical

Tay-Sach’s Disease Essay Example for Free

Tay-Sach’s Disease Essay The purpose of this paper is to discuss the hereditary genetic disease Tay-Sach’s, discovered during a pregnancy. The discussion will focus on developing an interdisciplinary team and care plan for the expectant parents based on their wishes. This paper will also cover any ethical and/or legal dilemmas that may arise as well as identify counseling needs of those involved. In addition, there will be a personal reflection about high risk pregnancy, abortion, and the decision made by the expectant parents. This study involves a married couple who after two years of trying to conceive a child became pregnant. The expectant Mother Rita Trosack is 43 years old and her husband Peter is 46. They are both Caucasian and have mediocre knowledge of their family history. Due to advanced maternal age, chorionic villus sampling was performed and it was determined that the baby is affected with Tay-Sach’s disease. Criteria Interdisciplinary Team, Rationales and Expectations Due to positive finding of the fetus being afflicted with Tay-Sach’s disease, this pregnancy is now considered to be high risk. This will require a more specialized interdisciplinary team to follow her intensely throughout her pregnancy as well as the baby after he/she is born. First and foremost the patient(s) are always going to be a part of the interdisciplinary team. Making them a part of the team helps them to be more comfortable with the situation as a whole. It also makes them feel as though they have some sort of control throughout this ordeal. It will be the patient(s) responsibility to voice their concerns and wishes. The first healthcare member of the team is the RN. The RN will be the advocate for the family. It will be his/her responsibility to build a trusting relationship and rapport with the family in order to build their confidence and make sure that their wishes are being adhered to. In this particular case the RN will need to be able to recognize her own feelings in regards to the issues that surround Tay-Sach’s disease and know how to set them aside so that he/she can properly advocate. The RN will need to assess the situation, background, culture, and beliefs to get a good sense of who the family is. It will be the RNs duty to try and answer any questions the family may have and direct the family to the necessary resources that they may require. Another member of the team will be the perinatologist. This is a physician who specializes in high risk pregnancy and births. There will also be a neonatologist, this is the physician who specializes in newborns that are premature and/or have birth defects. This member of the team will be involved in the care of the fetus throughout the pregnancy as well as at the birth and will follow the baby until care is transferred over to a pediatrician. The pediatrician will provide the necessary care and treatment for the infant and into his/her childhood, basically throughout life. A genetics counselor will be brought in to speak with the family about Tay-Sach’s disease. The counselor will be able to assess the parent’s knowledge base of genetics, explain the disease and how it is caused, discuss any concerns they have, and explain the possible outcomes of future pregnancies. A social worker will also be involved to provide the family with any other resources they may need such as support groups, counseling and/or legal help (Ainsworth, 2011). Teaching Plan The RN would need to initially call the patient and set up an appointment for them to come in and speak with the physician. The physician would be the one that would explain to the family exactly what Tay-Sach’s is. The physician would explain to the expectant parents that Tay-Sach’s is an inherited disorder that is caused by a genetic mutation that both parents carry. What happens is the body is missing an important enzyme and without it, there is a buildup of a fatty substance within the cells of the nervous system, mainly the brain, ultimately resulting in permanent malfunction. Signs and symptoms of the disease do not begin to surface until the child is around six months of age and it begins with gradual dysfunction of the motor skills. As the nervous system further degrades the symptoms become worse and the child loses sight, hearing, and mental functionality. Unfortunately there is no treatment for Tay-Sach’s except comfort measures and the life expectancy for a child with infantile Tay-Sach’s disease is typically four to five years (Ainsworth, 2011). The physician would need to emphasize that maternal age or lifestyle does not have any part in the cause of this diagnosis. The physician would then need to explain the options available at this time which are carrying the child to term or terminating the pregnancy via therapeutic abortion (Tay-sachs. org). Depending on the parent’s decision, should they choose to carry the child, they can also choose to care for the infant or place it for adoption. After the physician has spoken with the family, the RN would need to be there for the family, not only to listen, but again to answer any questions they may have. Mr. and Mrs. Trosack have decided to carry their infant to full term and care for their child due to their religious beliefs. At this time the RN would be responsible to clarify and document the parents’ wishes. The RN would be responsible for coordinating appointments with the specialists that will be involved in the care and communicating this with the family. The RN will then give the family the educational information to the parents to take home with them and the web address to the online support group for Tay-Sach’s. While finding this type of information out is unsettling, it will be the RNs job to make sure and give the parents ways to cope. The RN can teach them about relaxation techniques such as guided imagery, music therapy, or breathing patterns that can be done in situations when they are feeling anxious about the impending birth. The RN will educate the parents on maintaining a healthy diet and continuing regular activity and exercise as the physician recommends. The RN will explain to the expectant parents that since the pregnancy is considered high risk based on maternal age and the diagnosis of Tay-Sach’s there will be more frequent visits to the perinatologist than one would typically expect and there may be more ultrasounds performed to assess the baby. With any pregnancy the RN would want to educate the parents about signs of labor and when to seek medical attention in case of an emergency. The parents would need to know things that are not normal during pregnancy such as burning upon urination, vaginal bleeding, fluid gushing from the vagina, severe swelling, vision changes, loss of consciousness, or a severe headache. Education about abstinence from smoking and consumption of alcohol is also a necessity, regardless. Another oint of discussion eventually will be the birth, the RN would need to let the parents know that with a high risk pregnancy, home births are not recommended (mayoclinic. com). Ethical Implications of Genetic Testing Some would argue the genetic testing, especially during pregnancy gives someone the right to play â€Å"God†. In an article written by Dr. Rob DeSalle he discusses how we are now able to detect certain genetic disorders that parents can pass to their children such as Tay-Sach’s or Phenylketonuria. According to his article he wonders if this will give people a free pass to design their babies. Dr. DeSalle also speaks about â€Å"superhumans† in his article and the fact that with advancing technology we could create a race without defects (amnh. ecolleg. com). Chorionic villus sampling is typically done at 10-12 weeks gestation. An ethical concern surrounding the timeframe of this testing is that it often causes the parents to make the decision of a therapeutic abortion in a pregnancy that may have spontaneously aborted on its own. Although this theory is not 100 percent, it still could prevent the family from going through such a disheartening experience (Himes, 1999). Another dilemma families are faced with is the risk versus benefit. Chorionic villus sampling does not come with our risks. This type of test involved inserting a catheter either through the abdomen or transvaginally into the placenta and collecting a sample. Doing so has been known to cause a spontaneous abortion or even cause reduced limbs. The test, while important, could potentially do more harm than good. Ethical and Legal Dilemmas Whose right is it to bring a dying child into the world? Some believe that everything happens for a reason and others believe doing so is a form of inhumanity. This could surely affect the parents decision, especially if they felt that carrying the child to term and bringing it into the world would cause it suffering. What if the test is wrong? It is known that chorionic villus sampling is not as effective of a test as an amniocentesis, therefore with this knowledge the parents may wish to wait until further testing can be done, however by that time, the choice of therapeutic abortion is no longer an option (Himes, 1999). As far as legalities are concerned, discrimination would possibly be an issue. The parents insurance may not want to provide the necessary coverage for their child because the diagnosis was made in utero and they could have â€Å"prevented† it. The child is also going to require around the clock care, will either of the parents be let go from their positions for needing to take so much time off of work? These are two issues that also may affect the parent’s decision. It was determined that they both work very extended hours and this child will definitely have an effect on that. Patient Advocacy Advocating for the Trosack’s means standing up for them so that their decision and wishes are adhered to and making sure they are heard by the interdisciplinary team. The RN would also be their voice of reason when trying to explain their decision to other family members that they may bring in to learn more about the situation. Regardless of the RNs personal feelings it is his/her duty to make the parents feel confident in their decision and know that they are making the right decision for themselves. Personal Reflection As far as my own personal opinion, I am completely against abortion unless it is medically necessary or a woman has been raped or molested and does not want the baby that was conceived as a result. I do believe that the parents have the right to do whatever they feel is best for their family. In the case of the Trosack’s, I fully support their decision to carry their child.

riane eisler :: essays research papers

Riane Eisler Riane Eisler lives a lifestyle based on eco-feminism. She believes that we all live in a sexual and social equality and harmony in nature. In her book The Chalice and the Blade, she states ‘that for a millennia...prehistoric societies worshipped the goddess of nature and spirituality, our Great Mother, the giver of life and creator of all.' The societies that believed in this one creator were structured and peaceful, much like the societies we are trying to create in today's world. The ancient cultures did not treat earth as an object for ‘exploitation and domination' and believed in gender equality and respected women for their feminie values and life-giving gifts. Approximately 3,500 years ago, there were many different groups of civilization around the world. Within these different groups women held important positions such as priestesses and craftspeople. They were not male dominant and tended to be quite peaceful. Eisler mentions the Gaia hypothesis in her article stating that ‘in essence it is a scientific update of the belief system of Goddess-worshipping prehistoric societies'. Gaia is the Greek name for Earth and this hypothesis belief is that the Great Mother gives us all life and life's necessities. When Archaeology was just beginning scholars found evidence of societies where men were not superior to women, therefor they assumed that men had been inferior to the woman. This opinion was not based on evidence, but what Eisler called ‘the dominator society world view'. These Goddess worshipping societies believed that spirituality and nature were one. In Minoan, Egyptian, Sumerian and various other ancient cultures, women became priestesses and served the Goddess. These cultures all gave their Goddesses

City or Country

Japanese boy, Chinese boy, Filipino boy, Egyptian boy, Arabian boy, I’ve been hearing those comments all my life, and I believe that our true nationality is mankind and color doesn’t make the difference between people. Toastmaster, members, and guests welcome and good evening, tonight I’m going to introduce myself by talking about my crazy way of thinking. My name is hareth alsaadi, my father is Syrian and my mother is Filipino, and I carry a Filipino passport and for me it’s just papers made by men and it doesn’t identifies me, also work, money, materials, position, certificate, appearance, color, family, achievements doesn’t identifies me, from my perspective what identifies me and most of people is their mind and heart. I remember one month ago I watched a movie called ( the great Gatsby ) ( who knows the movie ) which I’ve learned from it a great lesson, the story is a man who’s name is Gatsby was a very rich and famous man with a very good looking, he had a very big and beautiful mansion with lots of servants, during his life thousands of people used to attend his parties that were held in his mansion, but unfortunately when he died none of them attended his funeral even his servants, only one attended his funeral, his friend who loved him for his heart and mind not for his materials. And that’s what I’ve noticed throughout my life, lots of people judge other people by their color or materials, and from my own experience people used to judge me by my color, in some countries people used to call me Arabian terrorist or Muslim terrorist what’s my fault if some Muslims who didn’t understand Islam did terrorist things, and in other countries people called me Mongolian boy which I didn’t know what it meant. I actually wouldn’t speak a word if im just facing verbal abusement, but Im also facing something called economic inequality which means having less chance to earn money, good job, good university,†¦ etc, and I have an experience on this issue, once I applied for a job opportunity in a bank, I gave them all the requirements including my high gpa certificate, so they gave me an English and math exam and my results in it is 98%, and I also did more than perfect in the interview, but somehow they didn’t accept me, I didn’t know the reason so I went to a friend of mine who works in the same bank, I told him of what happened so he called the HR to know why they didn’t accept me, so they told him the reason is very simple that the bank doesn’t accept Filipinos, but I wasn’t shocked because I got used on that kind of racism. Once albert einestein said nationalism is a childish thing it’s the disease of mankind also Socrates says Iâ€℠¢m not an Athenian or a greek, im a citizen of the world and I agree with both of them. It’s very terrible when we think about the results of nationalism, countries fight each other instead of fighting disease, poverty, natural disasters. At the end of my complicated speech all what I want to say firstly: I’m against identifying people by their materials, positions, certificates, color, etc, secondly: I’m against racism, thirdly I don’t like nationalism because I’m with the saying our true nationality is mankind. However I’ve learned a lesson of not making those things I face an excuse for me not to succeed or not to live happy, I want to end my speech with a quote which says obstacles are put in your way to see if what you want is worth fighting for.

Complete Finance & Accounts Outsourcing Solutions Essay

To professionally manage the collection, flow and direction of critical financial information so that management is able to take informed decisions. Timely and accurate information also empowers the Company to be proactive rather than reactive to trends or situations. Company Profile A leading retail food company, pan India presence, 500 employees, turnover INR 180 million. Challenge In the retail food industry, one of the keys to survival and growth is having timely information on food costs and other line items. Our client’s accounts department was not able to put together this critical information in the desired format even after circulating a standard format among outlets. Further, there were many clerical errors and a lack of understanding about the real purpose of the information sent by the company’s outlets. To make matter worse, the information received from outlets was irregular, making it difficult to deliver the MIS on a target date to the company’s management. Solution Not only did the MIS function take up too much of the CFO’s time and energy, in addition, it consumed the efforts of a dedicated professional, a qualified Chartered Accountant. Management recognized that better information was needed to understand where the strategies in terms of Food Costing were not working. BC was approached and contracted to streamline this function. Before this, BC had not worked with any client in the retail food industry. Implementation First, we conducted a professional due diligence process which took 5 working days to diagnose the real problems. Then, we prepared a short term view on issues to be addressed over the following 3 months. Also, we prepared a long term plan in which larger issues would be addressed over a period of 12 months. In the first stage, the real problem of co-ordination between the outlet personnel and accounts personnel was addressed by simplifying the format. BC undertook to educate them in why the information was required, and how it would improve the overall business. Within 2.5 months, the entire MIS was in place and the system was on the track. Current Status The biggest value addition by BC in the MIS area was its ability to help management to control Food Cost by 5 %. Another direct benefit of the whole process was the establishment of trust and respect between the outlets and the F&A department. We are now in the next phase of designing a system to track some specific cost items on daily basis.

Free Essays on Thesis On Things Fall Apart

â€Å"Things Fall Apart† is a fascinating book by Chinua Achebe. This is a simple story of a â€Å"strong man† whose life is controlled by anger and fear. Things Fall Apart is about the tragic fall of a great warrior, Okonkwo, and the Igbo culture. Okonkwo is a respected and influential leader within the Igbo community of Umuofia in east Nigeria. He first earns his personal fame, and brings honor to his village, when he defeats Amalinze a.k.a â€Å"the Cat† in a wrestling match. Okonkwo is determine to gain titles for himself and become a powerful and wealthy man in spite of his father's weaknesses. Okonkwo was a very cold-hearted man in the beginning, but becomes kinder throughout the story (Thesis). As we can see in the novel, Okonkwo isn’t the nicest man in the Ibo tribe. For example, he always tried to be tough and strong (â€Å"‘†¦ask my dead father if he ever had a foul when he was alive.’ Everybody laughed heartily except for Okonkwo, who laughed uneasily because, as the saying goes, an old woman I always uneasy when dry bones are mentioned in a proverb. Okonkwo remembered his own father†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Pg. 21 1st ). Okonkwo always thought that his father was a weak person and that no one should be like him. Okonkwo also belives that people should look out for them selves and shows little mercy on their wrong doings. In addition, During the Week of Peace, Okonkwo notices that his youngest wife, Ojiugo has left her hut to have her hair braided with out having cooked dinner. He then beats her for her negligence. After shamefully breaking the peace of the sacred week he must pay heavy fines for his sins (â€Å"†¦No work was done on the Week of Pe ace. People called on their neighbors and drank palm wine. This year they all talked of nothing else but the nso-ani, which Okonkwo had committed. It was the first time in many years that a man had broken the sacred peace†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Pg. 31 3rd). After this incident members of the Igbo tribe think he i... Free Essays on Thesis On Things Fall Apart Free Essays on Thesis On Things Fall Apart â€Å"Things Fall Apart† is a fascinating book by Chinua Achebe. This is a simple story of a â€Å"strong man† whose life is controlled by anger and fear. Things Fall Apart is about the tragic fall of a great warrior, Okonkwo, and the Igbo culture. Okonkwo is a respected and influential leader within the Igbo community of Umuofia in east Nigeria. He first earns his personal fame, and brings honor to his village, when he defeats Amalinze a.k.a â€Å"the Cat† in a wrestling match. Okonkwo is determine to gain titles for himself and become a powerful and wealthy man in spite of his father's weaknesses. Okonkwo was a very cold-hearted man in the beginning, but becomes kinder throughout the story (Thesis). As we can see in the novel, Okonkwo isn’t the nicest man in the Ibo tribe. For example, he always tried to be tough and strong (â€Å"‘†¦ask my dead father if he ever had a foul when he was alive.’ Everybody laughed heartily except for Okonkwo, who laughed uneasily because, as the saying goes, an old woman I always uneasy when dry bones are mentioned in a proverb. Okonkwo remembered his own father†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Pg. 21 1st ). Okonkwo always thought that his father was a weak person and that no one should be like him. Okonkwo also belives that people should look out for them selves and shows little mercy on their wrong doings. In addition, During the Week of Peace, Okonkwo notices that his youngest wife, Ojiugo has left her hut to have her hair braided with out having cooked dinner. He then beats her for her negligence. After shamefully breaking the peace of the sacred week he must pay heavy fines for his sins (â€Å"†¦No work was done on the Week of Pe ace. People called on their neighbors and drank palm wine. This year they all talked of nothing else but the nso-ani, which Okonkwo had committed. It was the first time in many years that a man had broken the sacred peace†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Pg. 31 3rd). After this incident members of the Igbo tribe think he i...

Business Writing Training Guidelines for Performance Appraisals

Business Writing Training Guidelines for Performance Appraisals Performance appraisals play an important role in motivating your employees and in encouragingthem to work to the best of their abilities. Appraisals provide an opportunity to shine for many, and anopportunityto reflect for others. Business writing training guidelines assist the difficult task for bothbusiness owners and managers to evaluate employee performance against quantifiable Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). Business writing training guidelines will also help individuals better document their achievements during their annual performance review. Writing a performance appraisal report is often cumbersome. Many companies use pre-written templates to prepare such appraisals, and this regimented approach is not always effective. Business writing trainingprovidesmanagers the business writing skillsto effectivelyprovide employees more data regarding their performance. Similarly, the directorship in many businesses requires in-depth employee performance analysis before they make any decision regarding payroll and promotion. hbspt.cta._relativeUrls=true;hbspt.cta.load(41482, '68b80d4a-2e12-4e12-a6e9-b258b38b08c3', {}); Despite its apparent complexities, writing performance appraisals is a fairly easy task. Here’s a look at fourbusiness writing training guidelines to help bothmanagers and individual employees write relevant and accurate performance appraisal reports. Keep the Audience in Mind Appraisal reports are written for the senior management in your organization. Put yourself in your manager’s position and consider: What does your boss want in this appraisal report? What good will this information do forhim or her? How will the report help in assessing the employee’s performance? The first step towards drafting an effective performance appraisal report is to keep your target audience in mind. There’s a famous business clichà © that says, â€Å"what counts is what'scounted†. This should be your focus. Analyze all indices and factors that seem relevant for the employee appraisal. Be Neutral Once you know who your target audience is, the next step is to maintain a certain level of neutrality in the performance appraisal. It is very easy to sway off course when preparing or filling out the appraisal report. As an employee, you need to address all the core areas of interest to your boss on a timely basis. Do this before they introduce any ancillary content to the performance appraisal report. As a manager, you need to share with your employees all the information and performance metrics against which employee productivity will be measured. Keep Track of All Achievements As a manager, you need to create an electronic record for your employees' achievementsthroughout the year. The same rule applies to employees as well. Scan your email for any recommendations or stand-out recognition you have received. Such exercises are are helpful, but consistent tracking is better. The best approach is to create a tracking documentthat lists all your achievements as they occur. These achievements should be in line with the performance indices used in your appraisal report. Whenever you receiveany recognitionemail or acknowledgement for your hard work, add it to your tracking document. This will provide accuracy and reliability to your performance appraisal report and help you assemble accurate facts. Mind Your Language Performance appraisal reports are very specific in nature. They determineincrements to your salary, bonuses, perks or even a better position. Therefore, it is important that you use the right tone, with accurate sentences and specific verbs to describe your performance. Use evocative words that specificallysummarize your achievements. Instead of relying on long and unending sentences, use short and precise words and phrases. Avoid businessclichà ©s that don't really mean anything specific, such as "passionate marketer" or "committed team member." Instead, be specific about your actual accomplishments. To learn more on how to improve business writing for your employees, downloadâ€Å"Four Steps to Improve Your Team’s Business Writing Skills.†

Accounting theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Accounting theory - Essay Example The money is the only and ultimate source of exchange in the world, and therefore, the companies have to acquire human and other resources by paying the suppliers money. The theory of Resource Dependence argues that organizations cannot survive without receiving social support from the relevant societies. However, the companies need to create success in order to gift their investors with the construct of trust that forms a cornerstone of any kind of human relation one can think of. The organizations have to serve the needs and wants of the investors and shareholders as well. The financial recordkeeping is far reaching in terms of sustaining a relationship with the stakeholders. The accounting systems might have the flaws, but despite that, one cannot possibly give up on them because they form an integral part of the business. The field of accounting is filled with corruption and dishonesty, but it does not mean that the system is wrongful in nature. However, those who are running it might be doing corruption (Cecchetti, 2006). In this way, the accountant becomes corrupt and dishonest with his or her profession. The field of accounting has become a flashpoint of corruption in recent years because of unveiling fraudulent activities in the departments of the leading companies. The conceptual framework behind the art and science of accounting has a design to pass entries in order to depict the exact situation of the business. The experts use the term creative accounting in order to refer to the practices that accountants apply to manipulate the stakeholders. The accountants create attractive level of working capital so that the financial outlook of their companies can appear attractive in the eyes of the stakeholders. The issues in the field began to intensify after the application of Generally Acceptable Accounting Practices (GAAP). The accountants apply the

Personal finance proposal Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Personal finance - Research Proposal Example Should the product by any chance meet or exceed client expectations, a repeat is likely as the stimulus is reinforced. On the contrary, failure of the product to meet customer expectations it has dropped and in the end, only beneficial products purchased which goes a long way in generating profits for the company. Although behavioral principles are looked at with a modest look into marketing practices, positive feedbacks are likely to be reinforced unlike negative ones (Michael & William, 1981) For our study purposes, we shall focus on long distance learning whereby a student is forced to access virtual libraries upon payment of a fee. Research indicates that most consumers tend to lack personal awareness on what product and services they need, it is, therefore, imperative for an organization to help discover what they need. This is where the Happy comes in hand by profiling the expenditure of consumers and look forward on how they can meet and exceed consumer need and wants (Lynch, Zimmer & Mccloskey, and N.D) Thaler H.R & Sunstein R.C (2011)Â  where is behavioural economics headed in the world of marketing?

Company report and promotion plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Company report and promotion plan - Essay Example This report seeks to provide a competitive analysis of British Airways and create a promotional plan for the company. The promotional plan will include a marketing mix analysis, time plan, and a brief budget forecast for the expenses and revenues of the promotion. British Airways has several competitors offering the same services and which lie in the same operating area. However, the airline industry in the UK has five strategic categories, which include specialist, non-schedule, no frills, local, and mass service (Kotler, 2002:139). British Airways falls in the mass service category, with other competitors such as Virgin Atlantic, Lufthansa, KLM, and Air France. No frills airline includes Ryan Air and Easy Jet, while non-schedule airline include Thomson. In local airlines, there is BMI and Palm Air in the specialist category (Bucks, 2010). The other four categories do not offer stiff competition compared to the mass service strategic group. British Airways’ main competition comes from serious contenders, who include Virgin Atlantic and United Airlines incorporated in the Star alliance that is controlling BMI. Despite not being in the same strategic category, no-frills airlines are a significant challenge to the British Airways, especi ally due to their low cost fares (Kotler, 2002:134). In addition, the recent sharp increase in oil prices and the economic downturn has led to a war price between the three major airlines plying the London Dubai route, British Airways, emirates, and Virgin Atlantic. Consequently, fare prices have gone down by almost thirty percent, which indicates that competition is still fierce. The marketing mix, or the 4Ps, is a marketing business tool used for determining the selling point of products and services. This analyzes the current marketing mix of British Airways, emphasizing on the price, product, and promotion elements. The report neglects the place

A Theory On Nation Building Politics Essay

A Theory On Nation Building Politics Essay There are different theories of nation-building and state-building that explain how a state and nation should be built. Most of the theories take their point of departure from Western models of state that is often inappropriate for African countries.  [1]   Nation-building has emerged in 19th century from nationalism in Italy and Germany and continued by external actors in post-WWII  [2]  in Germany and Japan. However, it is difficult to speak about nation-building in those two countries, as their nations; with strong cultural and ethnic bonds, already existed and focused more on building of democratic institutions. The conditions for nation-building, including homogeneity of the population, were much more positive than they are in Africa.  [3]  Due to this fact, this model is insufficient to explain the complexity of the situation in Somalia. Therefore we have decided to use a theory that encompasses also importance of element of nation, national identity and its integrity together with state-building. On the one hand, nation-building is a process of socio-political development. This, at least ideally, shall bring loosely linked communities together, becoming one society. This process can start off of political, economical, social, cultural or other reasons. As this process can involve extremely different dimensions, positively (economical integration) as well as negatively (repressions like ethnic cleansing) it is not clear that nation-building actually is successful.  [4]   On the other hand, it is a political objective as well as a strategy. This means that either internal or external players try to create a system that is constituted under a nation-state. Then, the term nation-building has a rather programmatic or conceptional character and cannot be used for analysing the political and social process. Therefore, this objective or strategy is mainly used in a development strategy in order to serve nation-building.  [5]   However different these two definitions are, there are three core elements counting for both: integrative ideology, integration of a society and development of a functional state (state-building). For a successful nation-building, this results in a triangle, Hippler argues, having state-building, social integration and ideological legitimacy at its corners, of which all corners need to be fulfilled. Some aspects of the elements can be introduced and provided from outside, while others can only be built from inside, such as ideological legitimacy.  [6]  Now we will describe different element in their theoretical perspective. Integrative ideology To begin with, there is a need to stem from an integrative ideology in order to build up a national feeling and give the people, through this, a national identity. Therefore, a common ground for all different groups in this emerging nation needs to be found. This could be, for example, religion, language or history. Obviously, the more in common, the bigger is the chance to build up one society. It is important to state, that, in this case, ideology should be understood in neutral terms as systems of thought and fundamental philosophies that explain the past, present and future according to certain value models.  [7]  When we look closer on the national identity, we can find several definitions. We have decided to connect two of them theoretically. One describes modern approach critically and It is also very important that this ideology comprises ideas applicable to everyone and idea of national cohesion must be stronger than the idea of separation.  [8]  Connecting ideology with national identity, different people have their own individual identities. As long as the primary identity and loyalty lies with the tribe, clan or an ethnic or ethnoreligious group and the national identity level remains subordinate or missing, a nation-state will continue to be precarious.  [9]   Crucial role in the formation of nation is played by government, elite or ruler. There are different criteria that government has to meet in the process of nation-building. First of all, government has to examine what has been done in the past, to be able to make people believe in better future. For example if the collapsed ruling regime left people hurt and full of distrust in the government, this fact has to be taken into considerations when building a nation. Therefore confidence in state institutions destroyed  [10]  should be prognosis for better future. Another influential element is population actually has to be willing to cooperate, to be motivated in creating, supporting and shaping the nation.  [11]  Finally, concept of nation has to fulfill different criteria in the perception of the people: centrality and extent nation-building shouldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦occupy a central position in peoples everyday political and social lives?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ association with other issues on the agenda connecting with the experiences of the target groups narrative familiarity flexibility and openness to change With clever policies and respect for the differences between different social groups in the nation, government can successfully develop a strong national identity and nation-building process. Integration of society Integration of society in the nation is very important element of nation-building. In post-colonial states it is usually understood in connection with democracy and third wave of democratisation. The nation-building was accompanied by high expectations from the West and in many post-colonial countries different ethnic groups are gaining meaning in the changing institutional system.  [12]   Generally, we define three models of national unity, that will help us to understand how in divided societies nation-building can take place. Those are: Imperium, Culturally homogenous nation of modern age and Pluricultural integration. In the imperium, there is a set hierarchy, while religion is dominated by the ruling elite. There is no necessary desire for unified culture and communication. Integration is achieved through differences.  [13]  Looking at culturally homogenous nation of modern age, we can see patterns of secularisation keeping culture and religion apart from the state. Culture of the majority or elite is, again, supported. Nation-building processes are underpinned by regulated norms.  [14]  In the last model, the pluricultural integration, minorities are oppressed and discriminated and have to struggle for recognition of their rights. This is mostly a case in multi-ethnic and multi-lingual societies that are taking account of cultural and religious diversity .  [15]   The evolution of democracy in developing countries is challenging and demands of different ethnic leaders make processes of nation-building in these countries even more fragile. But very important fact that there are efforts for building new architecture of democracy  [16]  That means that there are bigger emphasis on the ethnicity and ethnic equality and therefore these ideas counteract centralist/assimilatory tendencies  [17]  Four democratic innovations for states in inner conflict concordance, local representation, federalism and cultural autonomy. Concordance is a model that allows representatives of all important groups to participate in the political decision-making process  [18]  , offering large variety of institutional forms. Advantage of this form is creation of coalitions, where different groups have to cooperate to reach their goals. This model is of use when there is no strong majority to rule, because otherwise there is no need for coalition. Local representation represents most diverse representation of minorities possible  [19]  . It is also significant in the way that minorities are usually represented by their own representatives. In the elections, ethnic groups are finding coalitions and ways to cooperate and to enforce their interests. However, this model can deepen ethnic differences and policies might be strongly influences by individual ethnic interests instead of the ones of whole society.  [20]   Federalism offers different groups equal power but also identical rules to be followed. Groups deal with their matters individually, what makes system more flexible, decentralized and minorities more secure. On the other side, there is a danger of secession, where demands for greater autonomy can be continually rising.  [21]  FIND MORE The last model, cultural autonomy, is very focused to preserve and strengthen the identity of minorities  [22]  . There is emphasis on local languages and religions that are also considered to be official languages. That gives minorities ability to take care of their affairs individually, but on the other side, to deepen the differences between the groups (might not be an issue deals with minority language, legal pluralism) However, although state-building being a part of nation-building, it is important to distinguish between both of them: While state-building is focused only on building state institutions etc. a functional state apparatus nation-building is in many states a pre-requirement needed to be fulfilled before.  [23]  Especially in European countries, where a national identity already exists, only the state needs to be built around it. We can also observe this phenomenon, when we look upon the history of the modern (and in this case European) nation-state, where first a nation existed from which then a nation-state emerged. In post-colonial countries, in opposite, demarcations were made by the former colonial powers on interest lines and not according to ethnic groups, tribes or similar communities. This means in many cases, that a country either includes many different ethnic groups with different backgrounds, or that one ethnic group is spread in more than one country. This leads to arguments how a state should be governed and, through this, to weak states or weak state institutions. The political elements contain the nation-state and a high level of social mobilisation and political integration, which are, although not the central elements, some of the most important. Therefore, methods like material incentives (e.g. public service employment), cultural means (e.g. educational system and language policy) and compulsion need to be applied. Furthermore, when a government is finally introduced, it needs to consolidate its own position in the society.  [24]   The social mobility also needs to be built up, either in a bottom-up or top-down model. This implements that all members of society need to be involved, especially in the political and ideological process of shaping the nation. This is often a big change, as most weak states were formerly governed by only one part of the society which excluded/repressed the rest of the population. As everyone is supposed to participate, in this period of time, at least some democratic dialogue will take place. However, it is possible that the newly formed nation will in this dialogue agree on some authoritarian or totalitarian form of governance.  [25]   In this dialogue of constituting a nation, dormant conflicts will wake up, especially in the former excluded part of society. This might turn out to be more serious, when it is not clear who belongs to the nation. The problem arises especially, when the conflict is ethnically motivated (for instance because of the language or religion). Then, nation-building easily becomes repressive and lowers the social participation in the political discourse. There is also a need for the redistribution of power: old social and political structures will be (need to be?) destroyed, while new ones will be built up. This means, that, where local governments had most power, Hippler argues, a centralised government with a good local anchoring might be an advantage, as this ensures that new persons will take over.  [26]   As nation-building needs at least to some extend external help, especially in regards of providing security and building up a functioning infrastructure, the countrys government either needs to invite the international community, or this needs to intervene.  [27]  However, as the states of the international community will only act in a failing state if they see some advantage in it, there needs to be a trigger. This trigger could be for economic (the intervention of the USA to Iraq in 2003), security (the intervention of the NATO to Afghanistan in 2001) or for political and historical reasons (the intervention of the NATO in the Former Yugoslavian Republics in the 1990s).  [28]   The goal for intervening is not or not primarily nation-building; it needs to be seen as a necessity for reaching another goal. For example did the USA plan to leave Iraq after half a year and only realised after the end of the (official) war that it will take several years to build a nation and rebuild institutions.  [29]  This explains, why nation-building in many cases is only improvised, incontinent and lacks of preparation, as the war does not only destroy the balance of power in the intervened country but also entails a clash of power politics between internal and external players.  [30]  As it is the interference into the domestic politics of another country, Ignatieff stresses, nation-building has also imperial approaches.  [31]  A shift in the international discourse about an allowance of these imperial actions by putting them in the UN charter is discussed in the international community, as there is no dominant public position. But there can also be external efforts to internal nation-building that can be very helpful for the built state. A good example therefore was the nation-building in Afghanistan with the help of the USSR. Here, processes are supported from outside with positive efforts in political, social, security-policy and other domains. This is also possible in countries with different political embedding. However, then there is a greater emphasis on development and peace policies, although also other aid can be provided for a long term stabilisation.  [32]   In the case of external efforts for internal nation-building, it is important to see for the intervening state that often an area of conflict arises between the internal processes promoted and the often contradictory political objectives.  [33]   Internal nation-building should promote human rights, social equalisation, good governance and participative democracy. Imperial nation-building must recreate a nation-state and sometimes even the corresponding society. The desire to bring this about external players is the creation of an enormous dimension. However, the external governments are often not entirely conscientious of their action as they want/need to work economically and have a limited budget, while recreating a whole nation-state is financially very expensive, takes a lot of time it is calculated to take one or two generations, and is very personnel-intensive. If the intervening countries cannot fulfil these variables fully, they are likely to fail. This mostly happens in a change of government, what most likely occurs during the time frame of such an operation.  [34]   There are several fundamental problems that easily arise by imperial nation-building, meaning that one country intervenes another one and then rebuilds the nation:  [35]   Firstly, at the intervention but also throughout the whole process, there is a security problem: Usually, there is no real army to fight against, or it is just one part, but as the country is fragmented, the war is as well: Opponents are often warlords, terrorists and militias which fighters can be hardly recognised from civilians. Furthermore, their buildings are closely linked to civilians and common living spaces.(quote?) However, an army is only prepared to fight against clearly recognisable enemies and has in this case either only little power or civilian causalities need to be acceptable. The latter is usually not an option, as this is not only problematic in terms of ethics and international law but also contradictory to the overall aim, as the local people would not understand it. The second problem is the political problem of local rulers and warlords: As security is one of the major aims, for the intervening power as well as for the local population, a cooperation on the spot is often implemented. This can easily contradict to the aim of nation-building, because it usually means a cooperation with old local structures which are usually meant to be disband or with the use of other local power structures, militias, warlords and even criminal gangs as auxiliary troops. This was done by actors such as the UN (cooperation with a militia in Kosovo) and the USA (cooperation with warlords is Afghanistan and Iraq) for different interests: On the one hand, these auxiliary troops often find support in the local population and are therefore helpful, on the other hand they are potential enemies which are, at least for the time of cooperation, eliminated. This cooperation is built upon the proliferation of weapons and money towards these troops. But especially the latter becomes a problem in the further process. When peace and order are established, warlords, militias, etc. are supposed to be disarmed, what is very risky and needs a lot of money as well as personnel. A third fundamental problem is the question of resources: As already stated earlier, a nation-building process usually takes several years, a lot of money and personnel. The expected numbers are usually topped by the actual needs. A good example for this is the US intervention in Iraq, now going on for seven years instead of a supposed short-term mission by using almost double of the costs calculated.  [36]   Fourth, there is the internal political factor of the intervening state for a long term commitment. Especially in the Western world, the sense of the mission in regards of financial and human costs will be questioned after a short time. Also, due to the rise of interventions after the end of the Cold War, many states reach their military capacities by supporting one or two nation respective state-buildings (e.g. Germany with its soldiers in Kosovo and Afghanistan, the USA being in Iraq on top of its other operations). As a fifth fundamental problem, there should be mentioned conflicts of objective and means, as there is most often a conflict between the interest in actual nation-building and the interest of control. The latter needs certainly be focused on security reasons, because it can otherwise fall apart easily. In this context, nation-building becomes a means for social and political control of the country. That means that it is not any more an objective but becomes an instrument for other purposes. This comes, according to Hippler, down to three points describing the goals of imperial nation-building: [] (i) an emphasis on military, police and intelligence resources [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦]; (ii) appropriate infrastructure measures [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] and (iii) strictly regulated democratisation and participation possibilities in order to include local political forces in the administration of the country and be better accepted among the public at large [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦].  [37]   The opposite of imperial nation-building is non-imperial or development policy nation-building. Its biggest argument is that nation-building must not be seen as a blueprint of Western democracies which shall be projected on Third World countries, including economy and democratic institutions; being also a major reason for the failure in Afghanistan. Rather it should have a sound and workable concept that suits the countrys nation to be built. An example for failing on this context is the Iraq, where the USA did not have a suitable plan at all.  [38]   Best prospects nation-building has when fulfilling certain functions for the society affected. These should be articulated by socio-economic and political groups. However, nation-building is less likely to be affective after current crises, as the society is already too split. Easier it is when the society is not split yet, meaning usually a solution before a crisis starts off. While for the latter a short-term solution is likely to solve the prospects of nation-building, the former means because of the great experience of violence a more important role of control and security for the (re-)integration of society. When talking about integration, the question of a targeted disintegration may arise in the sense of ethnic cleaning in order of building separate nation states. A central argument of supporters of this thought is that in countries where is, due to e.g. a genocide, only little chance of an integration of the enemy factions and that it is close to impossible to bring integration if not wanted by any of the parties. Opponents may reply that greater trouble will occur by displacing people what definitely would need to happen in border regions, but is also likely to happen in other regions. A separation would neither solve the problem entirely as the factions are like to start a new war afterwards.  [39]   Nation-building is a painful, contradictory and complex process which promises only success, when the affected populations living standards are improved and the population connects it to nation-building. If the living circumstances stay the same in the long term it is perceived to be artificial and more and more opposition will rise. However, over a short term, nation-building is tolerated when it arouses hope for the future instead of actually bringing improvements.  [40]   As a starting point, the new nation must have the feeling that the new nation-state is and will be capable of solving problems in the populations interest. This normally includes economic and socio-political components such as a safeguarding food supply, healthcare, jobs and accommodation, but should also contain personal security and infrastructure. But cultural symbols are for the integration of a nation equally important.  [41]   Another step to be made in connection to the improvement of living standards is the implementation of politicostructural changes. An optimal starting point for these are the internal cultural and political conditions in the newly built nation. However, although it should create the prerequisites of it equality, a fair fiscal system, education, etc., it should not form democracy itself.  [42]  

Should Rich Nations Help Poor Nations? Essay -- Poverty Help countries

Should Rich Nations Help Poor Nations?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Imagine living in a community where every minute of everyday you were hungry, underclothed, and at risk for death because you are poor. Now imagine waking up and your biggest problem was which sweater to wear with which jeans. Both are scenarios that occur on a daily basis in our countries, some more extreme than others are. With that in mind a question of whether or not rich nations have an obligation to help those nations if need arises. Professor of philosophy Peter Singer and biologist Garrett Hardin both have very different opinions on this matter and the following paper will focus on their arguments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Peter Singer’s argument focuses greatly on the nation that citizens of rich nations can with ease help poor nations, without causing any financial burden, therefore, helping those in need should be done.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Singer introduces his objective about the obligation to support the less fortunate nations by stating that, as humans if we can prevent something horrible from occurring, without sacrificing our moral integrity, then helping should not be considered a problem, and we should do it (Singer 331). According to Singer’s idea, the intention is not to push individuals into helping out the poor. His intention is simply trying to make people realize that going out to a fancy restaurant, or taking that cruise around the world, is of less importance than helping out a starving young child who will die due to hunger (Singer 336.) It hardly seems fair, when you look at situations as such and think, â€Å"while I’m in luxury, another is starving.† Singer explains that the argument may be uncommon, but often times people still roll their eyes at the idea of sacrificing something small, in order to help out those in need. Singer asks, why is downsizing such a problem for the â€Å"affluent,† many believe it is not helping that is a problem, it is helping those in distant lands that poses the problem. But if one where to examine the situation and realize that no mother and father would want to deprive their own children from; a good education, clothing, food, and shelter then why let someone else’s children endure the same hardship. By no means is Singer’s intention to promote that we as a wealthy nation are equally responsible for the life and death of people on other nations (Singer 337.)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With regards to on... ...s not the position of one to decide the fate of a nation. Both Hardin and Singer do not disagree that there is a problem, however both are passionate about other forms of justice. There are many of us that take everyday necessities for granted, and some of these things those less fortunate may never have a chance to experience. The gap between the rich and the poor expands on a daily basis and will continue throughout the world. It is a question of how we want to change that. Is Singer right, because he says to help everyone, and give up our a little life’s luxuries, because it will be fulfilling in the end, to know we helped out? Or is Hardin right by saying that we should go about our daily routines as we would, because the world is going to have downfalls? It is our responsibility as human beings to decide what is right and what is wrong, this argument should not be decided by an article. Opinions and sides are going to vary†¦. That’s life ! â€Å"No arbitrary regulation, no act of the legislature, can add anything to the capital (Wealth) of the country; it can only force it into artificial channels† John Ramsey McCulloch Scottish Economist Principals of Political Economy